Pope Francis embarked on his longest foreign trip, visiting four nations in Asia. Hundreds of thousands of ardent fans came out to see the pontiff, but one giant country was decidedly not on his agenda—China. For the last six years, China has been at the core of the diplomatic attention of the Vatican because of a sensitive 2018 deal between the Holy See and Beijing. This secretive deal made room for an absolute novelty in modern history: both parties were given a role in the appointment of bishops. While hopes have been high for progress, the Vatican has achieved only modest success in China so far, and the relationship between the two sides remains highly fraught.
The 2018 Vatican-China Agreement: A Historic Pact
This historic deal between the Vatican and China signed in 2018 had a goal of mending the differences between the two divided factions of the Catholic Church in China. It centers on the selection of bishops, where appointments could be jointly approved by both the Chinese government and the Vatican. That's a quantum leap from how the Vatican would handle similar situations, for under its tradition, only the pope has the right to appoint bishops.
The compromise was an important step, according to Pope Francis, for reunifying Chinese Catholics-including two communities: state-approved congregations that had accepted government supervision, and an independent "underground" church loyal to the pope. By giving the Chinese government a say in the selection of bishops, Pope Francis indicated a path to bridging differences and unifying the estimated 10-12 million Catholics in the country.
The Vatican-China deal was part of the greater diplomatic outreach Pope Francis had sought to do with countries where, traditionally, the Catholic Church has been marginalized or faced hostility. China, with her generally complex relation to religious institutions, became a priority for this pontiff in his efforts to heal the divisions and foster dialogue between the two entities.
But from the start, the agreement was viewed by many within the Catholic Church as a betrayal. For some Catholics, the Vatican had ceded too much authority to China's Communist rulers, who would try to control the country's church leadership. For many, the compromise represented a betrayal of the underground Church, which had been loyal to the pope under the harshest persecution. You can read more about the Vatican's broader diplomatic strategy here:.
Strains in the Relationship: Beijing's Unilateral Moves
While the Vatican-China agreement was hailed as a diplomatic breakthrough, it soon became clear that the deal was far from perfect. China made a series of unilateral moves over the years that irritated the Holy See-to-Beijing relationship. In 2022 and 2023, it appointed bishops without prior consultation with the Vatican-a move Vatican officials described as a violation of the spirit, if not the letter, of the 2018 agreement.
These unauthorized appointments in Leshan marked further attempts by China to reassert control over religious institutions within its borders. To Beijing, religion has long represented a threat to state authority. The CCP has kept religious leaders and practices under strict supervision. This is reflected in the way that the government has treated the Christian faith, along with other recognized religions like Buddhism and Islam. Issues of religious freedom in China have been used as a foil within the international community, and have wide criticism from most human rights organizations against the strict regulations set out by the CCP. To read more about the struggles of religious groups in China, refer to: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/china-and-tibet.
Yet, all this frustration of the Vatican did not deter the Holy See from pursuing a dialogue with China. Admittedly, the deal has not yielded expected fruits so far, but the Vatican says ongoing cooperation with China would lead to a harmonious relationship. In turn, Pope Francis reassured everybody that though he is unattached to the process of improving ties, the 2018 agreement was part of minimum sacrifices required to save the Church in China.
Impact on Chinese Catholics
The move of the Vatican to engage in talks with China had met a mixed response among Chinese Catholics. While the agreement has resulted in some level of collaboration between the Holy See and the Chinese government, opening certain opportunities for dialogue, a few steps taken by the Vatican have let Beijing in-one step that, in effect, has abandoned many members of the underground Church. For decades, underground Catholics have been persecuted for their loyalty to the pope, and the willingness of the Vatican to cooperate with the Chinese government is a betrayal in their minds.
The Catholic Church, underground in China, has a long history of resisting state control. After the Communist Party came to power in 1949, the Chinese government broke off all formal diplomatic ties with the Vatican and later installed a state-recognized church called the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association. However, the underground Church remained true to the pope and refused to acknowledge the authority of the CPCA, setting off decades of tension, with underground priests and bishops often facing imprisonment, harassment, and surveillance.
Today, this underground Church is active but continues to face state challenges. The agreement of 2018 was supposed to ease tensions between Beijing and the Vatican, yet many underground Catholics seem to think that too much has been conceded by the Vatican to Beijing without any meaningful guarantees on the other side. Thus, the future for this underground Church is precarious; both the Vatican and Beijing are trying to shape the future of Catholicism in China.
A Way Forward: Healing the Relations in 2024
But despite tensions, there are hints that fences are being mended between the Vatican and China. Intentions have been made on both sides to resume cooperation in 2024 with the aim of restoring mutual trust and making sure the original purpose of the 2018 agreement is pursued. For the Vatican, this equates to continuing attempts at an entente with China, with the hope that Catholics there can enjoy greater religious liberty, while performing a delicate balancing act between compromise and control.
The outreach toward China reflects a broader theme in the Francis papacy: a predisposition for dialogue and engagement with those countries where the Catholic Church has faced adversities. From the beginning of his pontificate, he has tried to make it easier for diplomacy to take part in and bridge areas where mutual contact with the Holy See was difficult-from Cuba to the Middle East. Arguably, however, his policy on China is one of the most complex and sensitive diplomatic initiatives of his time on the throne thus far.
The greatest challenge facing the Vatican in the future does, in fact, seem to be the management of its relations with China. The Holy See needs to find its way between two poles: on one side, there is the preservation of the autonomy of the Church; on the other, opening up toward a government very keen on state control. The outcome will be particularly important, not only for Chinese Catholics but also because of the influence that the Vatican is able to wield in this century.
Conclusion
Less than a decade after the 2018 deal, the Vatican's diplomacy with China has borne little fruit. Rather than bringing cohesion among Chinese Catholics-the putative purpose of the pact-it has instead revealed deep divides within the Church while only further deteriorating the Vatican's relationship with Beijing. It's not yet known how the future of the relationship between the Vatican and China will unfold, but Pope Francis is determined to press on with his diplomatic overtures.
Indeed, the Holy See continues to strive for a commitment to dialogue with China, hoping for long-lasting changes. As both sides signal a willingness to mend relations in 2024, the world will be watching to see if the Vatican can navigate this complex and often precarious relationship.
For more on the Vatican's diplomacy and updated status of religious freedom in China, visit this report from Amnesty International at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/.